Wireless communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Wireless communication - Essay Example Unlike other previous forms of communication, wireless communication networks have increasingly gained popularity especially with the recent mode like 3G and 4G which have continuously improved data transfer and communication efficiency. Recent advances in technology have led to efficient satisfaction of the needs of consumers while ensuring that life is easier. The second generation GSM and its evolutional stages of GPRS and EDGE and third generation UMTS are discussed in detail to pave way in understanding the 4G technology. Wireless communication: 1G-4G cellular communication systems 1.0. Introduction Cellular mobile telephone systems development and deployment was triggered by the operational limitations of standard mobile telephone systems (Brand and Aghavami, 1). These limitations include limited capacity for service, inefficient utilization of spectrum and poor service performance. The communication of mobile phone occurs through a temporary distinct radio channel in order to communicate to the cell site. The cell site is contains several channels and each mobile talks to it through only one of the channels. The channels are characterized by a pair of frequencies which are used during the communication. The forward link transmits from the cell site to the users while the reverse link receives calls from users. The radio signal transmitted in early mobiles dissipated with distance and mobiles had to stay close to the base station in order to secure effective communications. According to Brand and Aghvami (1), moving mobile users were not sufficiently offered with an effective means of communication. Mobile radio service has its operations in a closed network with no access to the telephone system unlike the mobile telephone service that allowed interconnection to the telephone network. Traditionally, the mobile service structure included a single powerful transmitter that was located at a high spot to broadcast signals within a radius of up to about 50 km and the mobile telephones were attached to the transmitter (Brand and Aghvami, 2). Conversely, the introduction of cellular telephone system architecture involves placing numerous low-power transmitters within the entire coverage area and each covers a small area called the cell and using varying channels or conversions. The cellular telephone system allows a user to travel while making a phone call with no interruptions since they can use more than one base station. The application of the cellular concept in mobile telephone systems overcame interference problems and improved the efficiency of communication since the cells size was equivalent to the density and demand of subscribers in a particular area and was flexible to accommodate growing population’s demand and user density. Interference is overcame since a cluster can be reused in other cells while conversations can be handed off from one cell to the other and phone services maintained constantly as one moves between cells through handoff (Brand and Aghvami, 2). Cellular phone systems is characterized by four generations which are first generation or 1G, second generation or 2G, third generation or 3G and fourth generation or 4G. This paper explores cellular mobile system generations in terms of their capabilities, date of introduction, and comparison of inherent features. 2.0. First generation or 1G cellular phone systems The 1G cellular phone systems are characterized by the use of analog frequency modulation to facilitate the transmission of speech, frequency shift keying or FSK for signaling while FDMA or frequency Division Multiple Access for the sharing of assigned spectrum (Patil, Karhe and Aher, 614). The most

Thomas Randolph and his Career Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10750 words

Thomas Randolph and his Career - Coursework Example One of those, and the subject of this study, is Thomas Randolph, the 1st Earl of Moray. He is an important figure throughout the Scottish Wars of Independence and acted as a Regent to the Crown from Bruce's death in 1329 until his own death in 1332. It is interesting to note that few detailed studies of Randolph have been undertaken, despite his importance within Scottish history. This analysis attempts to balance this situation somewhat, through providing a detailed examination of Thomas Randolph as an individual, in his relationship with Robert the Bruce/other Scottish nobles, of his involvement in both Scottish military/diplomatic achievements and his subsequent tenure as Guardian of the Scottish realm. As a multifaceted figure, Randolph deserves a consideration of the various activities which he undertook during his tragically shortened life. There are numerous contradictions within the story of Randolph which will be considered in a sober and objective manner. He was not an unthinking, blind follower of Robert the Bruce, and indeed changed sides to fight for the English for a while. As an individual who may be considered a 'professional soldier' (as far as such a thing existed in the Fourteenth Century) Randolph was a consummate military commander who had very specific opinions on not only why a war should be fought but also how it should be fought. Randolph is in many ways as good a source for legendary feats as the Bruce himself. His taking of Edinburgh Castle, one of the last English strongholds what stood atop a supposedly impregnable rock, has gone down in history as an act of almost superhuman military skill. Yet it is the man beneath such legendary acts, and thus the individual that has been largely ignored by history, which will be of great importance within this study. A contrast of the legend and the reality is a suitable focus for an examination of such a figure, and it is the one that will be adopted in this study. Literature Review This literature review will be divided into primary and secondary sources and will present some of the varying views of the man that they entail. There are a number of primary sources that may be used in conjunction with a study of Randolph, although these are by necessity limited due to the scarcity of documents in general from this time. Documents are particularly few and far between in the pre-Bannockburn days, although some conjectures can be made using those which are available. Two of the main sources are the Regesta Regum Scottorum V1 and the Regesta Regum Scottorum VI2. These record the various laws and edicts passed by Scottish Kings and their associated noblemen, especially within the Feudal system that was still present during the time period being discussed here. The Exchequer Rolls of Scotland3 give information on financial matters within Scotland at the time, while the

Process of Socialization Essay Example for Free

Process of Socialization Essay Socialization is the process by which children and adults learn from others. We begin learning from others during the early days of life; and most people continue their social learning all through life (unless some mental or physical disability slows or stops the learning process). Sometimes the learning is fun, as when we learn a new sport, art or musical technique from a friend we like. At other times, social learning is painful, as when we learn not to drive too fast by receiving a large fine for speeding. Natural socialization occurs when infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them. Planned socialization occurs when other people take actions designed to teach or train others from infancy on. Natural socialization is easily seen when looking at the young of almost any mammalian species (and some birds). Planned socialization is mostly a human phenomenon; and all through history, people have been making plans for teaching or training others. Both natural and planned socialization can have good and bad features: It is wise to learn the best features of both natural and planned socialization and weave them into our lives. Positive socialization is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Negative socialization occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to teach us a lesson; and often we come to dislike both negative socialization and the people who impose it on us. There are all types of mixes of positive and negative socialization; and the more positive social learning experiences we have, the happier we tend to be,especially if we learn useful information that helps us cope well with the challenges of life. A high ratio of negative to positive socialization can make a person unhappy, defeated or pessimistic about life. Some people will defend negative socialization, since painful training can prepare people to be ready to fight and die in battle, put themselves at great risk in order to save others, endure torture and hardship. This is true; but many people receive far more negative socialization than they need, and hopefully fewer and fewer people will need to be trained for battle, torture and hardship. Functions of Different Social Processes 1.Cooperation- The most favored of all the social pocesses, promotes solidarity and cohesion. I.primary cooperation exist when individulas share the task and rewards with all the members, when the sharing itself becomes both the ends and the means. II.Secondary Cooperation is mere formal type of cooperation existing in modern societies and formal groups. 2.Conflict and cooperation- there are generally considered destructive forces, especially the conflict process but both also fulfill certain function in our society or else the process will oersist competition for one encourages people to exert their best. It stimulates individuals to improve their skills and evidence their knowledge. 3. Differentiation- As individuals they carry with their status or positions in the social system. The status determines the role play in the social situation. As society become more and more complex, roles and function of members in the social system becomes more and more specialized. Differentition role may depend in such factors as sex, age, wealth accumulated and others. References: http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/baldwin/classes/soc142/scznDEF.html Reporter: Danilo L. Sorio Jr.

Aircraft Maintenance Hanger Construction Bid

Aircraft Maintenance Hanger Construction Bid Introduction Many hangar projects are erroneously started in what should be the fourth step project execution. Bypassing the first three planning steps usually leads to frustration and project failure. There is no way to shorten the process by skipping any particular step. Planning the development of any construction site ultimately saves time, effort, and money. All of the project pre-planning and preparation to this point begins to pay off. During the project execution phase project manager completes the project design and funding, solicit bids, award the construction contract, build the hangars, and move in tenants. There will be changes that must be incorporated into the project plan (change in funding sources, regulations, stakeholders, size of project scope), and using the principles of project management can ensure the best possible outcome. This case is about the construction bid for an Aircraft maintenance hanger. ABC Construction Company is in the business of the Aircraft hanger construction. The company has bid for the construction of Aircraft hanger at one of the client site. The Project Manager of the ABC Construction Company has been entrusted with the responsibility of coming up with the project management plan for the entire construction. The following sections provide the baseline plan, progress of the activities against the plan on a given date (15/12/2010) and the efforts by the project manager to bring the plan to the original schedule. The second part of the task is to develop a project cost plan for the main contractors preliminaries associated with the construction of the aircraft hanger. When calculating the preliminary costs, following information is referred: NRM Group element 10 guidance Drawings of the Aircraft hanger Contractors master program The cost plan also discusses the implications of earned value techniques on the project as part of the project control process. The discussion also includes examples to illustrate the application of the earned value techniques in the management of the preliminaries costs. Finally, the value engineering process is conducted to the project, and a better deal is offered the client, which has a better value but at a lower price. The value engineering report prepared as part of this process demonstrates each step of the value engineering process. Time and resource planning and control Project scheduling Assuming the project starting date is of 06/09/2010, and 5 working days a week with Saturday and Sunday as holidays. Based on the tasks lists provided to you, Input activity information into Microsoft Project and schedule the hanger. Based on the schedule that you have generated using Microsoft Project, provide the following outputs: project schedule information (activity ID, activity description, activity duration, predecessors, skilled labor, unskilled labor, early start, early finish, late start, late finish, and total float); CPM network diagram; Bar charts; and Project resource profiles (skilled labor and unskilled labor). Program control By now, you should have developed your baseline schedule for the office building. As an exercise in monitoring and control, you will be required to monitor and control your project based on certain deviations from your initial project plan. Save your initial schedule plan as a baseline schedule and identify all the critical activities; Assume the current date to be 15/12/10 and induce delays into your project based on the following considerations: Due to the problem for the selection of the color of bricks, the hanger starts on 15/10/10 instead of 06/09/10; all activities in progress on 22/10/2010 are delayed by 3 days each; all activities in progress on 01/11/2010 are delayed by 5 days each; all activities in progress on 20/11/2010 are delayed by 2 days each; Update the project and save this as actual project information. After updating, please provide the following information Project schedule information (activity ID, activity description, activity duration, predecessors, skilled labour, unskilled labour, early start, early finish, late start, late finish and total float); Barcharts; Project resources profiles (skilled labour, unskilled labour); and Critical activity list. Do a comparison between both baseline and actual schedules. For comparison, you may compare activity start and finish dates under both situations. Since your project should have been delayed, it is your duty as a project manager to bring the project back on schedule with the least cost. Using 15/12/10 as a current date, try compressing some activities (these activities should not have started yet) and bring the project back on schedule. Compression should be logical and at a minimum cost. This may require several trials. Assume that the extra cost incurred as a result of activity compression is  £50/worker/day. After bringing back your project on schedule, please provide the following information: Project schedule information (activity ID, activity description, activity duration, predecessors, skilled labor, unskilled labor, early start, early finish, late start, late finish and total float); Bar charts; Project resource profiles (skilled labor, unskilled labor); and Critical activity list. Do a comparison between baseline, actual and updated schedules. For comparison purposes, you may compare activity start and finish dates under all situations. All the above details related to above questions have been entered into MS-Project and the three mpps are enclosed with the assignment. Cost Plan Develop a project cost plan for the main contractors preliminaries associated with the construction of the aircraft hanger. The Project cost plan includes the schedule of costs to be incurred during the project and the associated estimates. These are the costs which are expected to be incurred as a result of the completion of project activities. The schedule of activities and the resource plan feeds into the Cost plan and hence it is prepared subsequent to them. As a result of the project planning activities, the project manager is aware of the details regarding the project and hence the refinement of project budget can take place. This activity is particularly important when the project in full or part is expected to be executed under a contract. This is not to undermine the importance of accurate cost planning for the in-house projects as accurate and realistic cost plan helps in effective monitoring and of costs during the execution of the project. The monitoring of the cost helps the project manager to execute the project within the budget. Following three activities are important to develop the cost plan The expected cost identification and estimation Estimation of schedule when these costs would be incurred Cost per activity/task estimation The development of the cost plan for simple projects may only involve the consideration of the overall cost vis-à  -vis the project activities on the schedule of activities. Nevertheless, the situation is different for the complex projects, where, a detailed cost plan needs to be drawn in order to effectively monitor the overall expenditure. The NRM is also known as New Rules of Measurement. It provides a structured basis for preparing order of cost estimates and elemental cost plans including all the costs and allowances forming part of the cost of the building to the client but which are not reflected in the measurable building work. NRM covers the non-physical aspects of a project that the client may require as part of his overall budget for the project. NRM rules for order of cost estimating Information required Constituents Measurement rules Floor area Functional units Elements floor area, Element unit quantities Updating historic costs Preliminaries Contractors overheads and profit Discuss how earned value techniques could be employed on the project as part of the project control process including examples to illustrate their application to the management of the preliminaries costs. Earned Value Analysis (EVA) was developed by the US Department of Defence to determine the performance of large military procurement contracts. Its techniques can still be applied to the smaller projects currently in use today. Indeed, as Microsoft Project allows drilling down through and across a project, specific variances and general trends can be easily found. EVA looks at three basic parameters: What value of work SHOULD have been accomplished to date? How much value has been realized to date? How much has actually been spent to date? By comparing these parameters, an objective assessment of cost AND schedule performance can be gained. Instead of simply concentrating on how much time has been taken to achieve progress, earned value looks at how much value has been achieved so far. For example, take the following project summary task: This project started on time, but it is currently expected to finish 5 days late. This project is expected to overspend by $1,280 approximately 13% greater than its baseline cost. So far (as of the projects status date), the project is behind schedule to the value of $1,600 worth of work. In addition the current best estimates indicate that it will (if things continue as planned) overspend by $2,004, which is $725 more than forecast in the topmost example. Whilst these figures may not indicate large overspend or overrun, these figures are from a sample project containing ONLY seven tasks. If there were 70 tasks (or even several hundred tasks), the potential for error becomes much larger. Value Engineering Efforts to reduce the Cost Value Engineering is defined as an organized effort directed at analyzing the functions of systems, equipment, facilities, services and supplies for the purpose of achieving the essential functions at the lowest life cycle cost consistent with the required performance, reliability, quality and safety. Numerous other terms (value management, value analysis, etc.) are also used when referring to VE. While there are subtle differences among these terms they all refer to-generally the same process. There types of benefits associated with the VE exercise in the current case are First Cost Reduction: These reductions are attributed to the VE program only when required project functions or features can be delivered at the reduced cost. Simple cost cutting e.g. reducing cost at the expense of required features or functions is not VE. VE first cost reductions are counted as VE savings to the extent that dollars are withdrawn from approved budgets based on the results of VE studies. Life Cycle Cost Reduction: LCC reductions are based on the aggregate of first cost and anticipated future cost in maintenance and operations. When additional first cost is required to implement a specific VE suggestion, this can be offset by other VE suggestions which reduce initial cost. If the project budget must be increased to accommodate the additional investment, first cost savings derived from other projects may be used for this purpose after appropriate approvals. As long as they do not entail first-cost project budget increases, VE suggestions based on apparent life-cycle cost reductions may be adopted without formal LCC analysis. However, LCC reductions will be counted as VE LCC savings only when supported by sufficient economic analysis. Value Improvement: Value improvement is a subjective expression referring to a projected or apparent favorable shift in cost/worth ratio. The objective of all VE suggestions is value improvement, whether or not cost reductions are involved. VE suggestions maybe to reduce life cycle cost with no reduction or a lesser reduction in worth, to increase worth with no increase or a lesser increase in life-cycle cost, or (ideally) to increase worth and reduce cost. All VE suggestions which involve adjustments in worth should be related to specific forms of such adjustment (e.g., productivity, flexibility, expandability, aesthetics, etc.), whether or not they also involve cost adjustments. Following two studies were conducted as part of the VE exercise: The completion of Concept Design The completion of Tentative Design As it is a new construction projects, the first study at Concept Design is intended to review basic design decisions that pertain to areas such as: Siting and building orientation Building form, shape and massing Layout Occupiable to gross area relationships Design criteria Building systems selection options Space program options Building space/volume parameters Vertical and horizontal circulation Major Mechanical-Electrical-Plumbing (MEP) considerations Overall energy considerations Site access/egress Overall phasing/scheduling plans (as appropriate) Sub-soil conditions and geological data Utility availability The second study at Tentative Design will focus on more detailed design decisions including (as applicable): Specific building system design Specification and performance requirements Proposed design details Layout options within overall building geometry Specific MEP system selections Site paving, grading and utilities Phasing and scheduling plans Major constructability issues The basic approach is intended to consider macro level issues at Concept Design and more micro level issues at Tentative Design. In general, decisions made as a result of the first study will not be reconsidered in the second study unless significant new information is available. Furthermore, design changes implemented as a result of the studies will generally be considered to be within the bounds of the normal design process. VE Job Plan The recommended VE methodology (Job Plan) used by the VE team during the Workshop had five distinct phases. Briefly, these phases are: Information Phase: During this phase, the VE team gains as much information as possible about the project design, background, constraints, and projected costs. The team performs a function analysis and relative cost ranking of systems and sub-systems to identify potential high cost areas. Speculative/Creative Phase: The VE team uses a creative group interaction process to identify alternative ideas for accomplishing the function of a system or sub-system. Evaluation/Analytical Phase: The ideas generated during the Speculative/Creative Phase are screened and evaluated by the team. The ideas showing the greatest potential for cost savings and project improvement are selected for further study. Development/Recommendation Phase: The VE team researches the selected ideas and prepares descriptions, sketches and life cycle cost estimates to support the recommendations as formal VE proposals. Report Phase: The VE consultant will work in concert with the A-E and the PBS representative to produce a preliminary written VE Report which is intended to represent the results of the VE workshop activities, and meet the VE Program objectives. Finally, post workshop, all the suggestions were collated and classified into three categories of high, medium and low complexity. The suggestions associated with the current projects were as follows Modification of architectural designs: The hangar roof was designed to be an opaque structure. This roof can be made transparent through the ample use of the transparent glass which would allow more volume of sunlight. The high amount of sunlight during the day would result in the low usage of electricity and hence reduction in the variable cost of the running the hangar. Substitution of building wall material: Building wall material is designed to be made up of steel which can be replaced with high grade brick. The brick would also keep the temperature under control within the hangar. Reuse of existing materials such as fencing: The material used in fencing can be reused in the construction activity as the fence would not be required eventually. Use of Solar power: The Solar power can be effectively used to heat the water as well as to provide the night time lighting. This would reduce the variable cost of running the hanger. References Cooks, Sarah (2002), A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, PMI, 3rd Edition (PMBOK Guides) Public Procurement Directorate (2007), [Internet], Public Procurement best practices guide, Available at :< http://www.publicprocurementguides.treasury.gov.cy/OHS-EN/HTML/index.html?7_4_3_cost_of_project_development.htm>, accessed on: 25 May 2010 Homepage (2007), [Internet], Aircraft Hanger development guide, Available at :< http://www.aopa.org/asn/hangar-execution.pdf>, accessed on: 25 May 2010 Jack J. Champlain, Auditing Information Systems, Second Edition (2003), Pages 277, 278, 279 280, John Wiley Sons Publication. Mulcahy, Rita (2003), Risk Management, Tricks of the Trade ® for Project Managers, 4th edition, RMC Publications. Mulcahy, Rita (2003), PMP Exams Prep, RMC Publications. Rich, Jason R, Design and Launch an Online E-Commerce Business in a Week, Entrepreneur Press, 2008, ISBN: 1599181835, 9781599181837. Schwalbe, Kathy (2009), PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge) reference and Information Technology Project Management, 6edition.

Contrasting Outlooks in Dream of the Rood and The Wanderer Essay

Differing Outlooks in Dream of the Rood and The Wanderer      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Outlook defines our perception of reality. The characters in Dream of the Rood and The Wanderer maintain opposed perspectives that greatly influence the way they view their common state of desolation. The dreamer and the Cross in Dream of the Rood embrace a religious ideology that gives them hope, whereas the earth-walker in The Wanderer embraces an existential view that leaves him to suffer his loneliness. The characters' differing outlooks greatly influence how they view their exile, their ultimate destination, and the journey to this destination, their "homecoming."    The characters of both works face exile: the dreamer's friends have "gone hence from the delights of the world," the Cross is "taken from [its] stump," and the wanderer is "far from dear kinsmen" (Rood 20-1; Wanderer 69). This exile saddens all of the characters: the dreamer is "all afflicted with sorrows," the Cross is "sore afflicted with griefs," and the earth-walker is "wretched with care" (Rood 19-20; Wanderer 69). While the characters face similar desolation and melancholy, however, they differ greatly in their reactions.    Before the dreamer approached the Cross he was dispirited, but upon hearing t... ...dle Ages," pp. 1-26; The Dream of the Rood, The Wanderer, (700/900), Five Old English Riddles (pp. 150-51), translated from Old English    Dockray-Miller, Mary. "The Feminized Cross of 'The Dream of the Rood.'" Philological Quarterly 76 (1997): 1-18.    Finnegan, Robert Emmett, 'The Gospel of Nicodemus and The Dream of the Rood, 148b-156'.   Neuphilologische Mitteilungen. 84 (1983): 338-43.    "The Wanderer." The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Ed. M.H. Abrams. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993. 68-70.    Woolf, Rosemary. "Doctrinal Influences on The Dream of the Rood." MAE 28 (1958): 137-53.

The Last Samurai :: essays research papers

My Place of Refuge For a number of people visiting places of significance can be the channel for changing one’s point of view on life, recharging one’s emotional battery, or growing closer to one’s family and friends. These favorite places could have characteristics such as captivating beauty, sentimental value or a refuge of serenity. My favorite place where I find refuge is at Pomme De Terre Lake near Bolivar, Missouri. This is where I find a connection with my family and friends. The lake is a place to reflect on times spent growing up and now a place to make new memories with my family and friends. A place to find refuge from normal day-to-day life and take in the beauty of such a splendid area that God created. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The smells surround me in an irresistible craving for the lake. A. The smell of the dew in the morning B. Smells of the campfires C. Waking up by the aroma of the bacon frying. 2. As I think of the aroma of the bacon frying it brings my to the sensational tastes created at the lake. A. The flavor of the bacon in your mouth. B. I take delight in the taste of the smoked turkey on July 4. C. The taste of a cold beer while spending a hot day on the lake or enjoying a late night game of cards. 3. The magnificent sights created at the lake. A. Blazing orange and red colors created by the flames of the campfire. B. The marvelous scene of an evening sunset. C. The view of our family enjoying time together at the lake. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The sounds of the lake create a refuge from the normal day-to-day life. A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The voices of my family talking and laughing B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The roaring of the engines of the boats racing up and down the water. C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While laying in the tent taking in the peaceful sounds of the night 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The lake makes me feel such an enjoyment. A. The feel of the salmon ski under my feet B. The control I feel while in the driver’s seat of the boat C. The feel of the dew under my feet People need to find a place that can cause a renewing to their body and their inner self. People need time to create significant memories with their family and friends. They need a place to reflect back on the beauty of our magnificent world that God created. We all need to find a way to recharge our emotional battery and grow closer to the ones we love.

Transport of Karachi

Karachi is the economic and financial hub of Pakistan generating approximately 53. 38% of the total national revenues. Approximately 75% of the population falls in category of poor or low income groups while the rest constitute middle or high income groups. Urban transportation system of Karachi has no mass transit system and people rely mainly on bus services. The people on average take 13. 5 million mechanized trips per day, of which 52% is made by public transport. Urban Bus Scheme and Karachi Circular Railway are major project deemed to relieve the congestions on the roads of the city. Only Urban Bus Scheme, however, has yet shown considerable activity on part of public transport planning and implementation. This system lacks inter-modal integration and sustainability due to which this system has failed to cater to the growing commutation demands of masses. This research study aims to investigate the demand and supply gap of the sector in light of institutional capacity to develop and maintain. Also, this study attempts to compare public transportation system of Karachi with comparable metropolis like Mumbai, Delhi and Beijing. In last, the study attempts to explore socio-economic reasons behind delay of Karachi Circular Railway. The study has adopted descriptive and thematic analysis approach to achieve the objectives. All the analysis, hereon, are done on secondary data gathered for the purpose. This study concludes that an integrated, multi-modal and sustainable public transportation system can only be achieved by giving a holistic approach to planning, execution and capacity building of the sector. 1. 1Population Overview During the last 50 years, Pakistan’s population has increased from 33 million to 152. 3 million in FY 2005, thus, making Pakistan the s1- LITERATURE REVIEWeventh most populous country in the world (Karachi Mega Cities Preparation Project, 2005). According to the 1998 Census Report, Karachi had a population of 9. 2 million in 1998 compared with 5. 2 million in 1981, a growth rate of 4. 5% per annum. In 1998 the National population was 130. 5 million, and that of the Sindh province 30. 4 million. Growth rates since 1981 were 2. 61% and 2. 80% respectively, indicating rapid urbanization in Karachi, which was also much higher than the national average growth for urban areas of 3. 5% and also for that of Sindh at 3. 52%. On this basis population in 2015 for Karachi would reach 20. 7 million and 26. 4 million in 2020. (Karachi Mega Cities Preparation Project, page 4, 2005) Karachi, the capital of Sindh is the commercial hub and the gateway of Pakistan. It generates approximately 53. 38% of the total collections of the Federal Board of Revenue (FBR Report, 06-07). The city handles 95% of Pakistan’s foreign trade; contributes 30% to Pakistan’s manufacturing sector; and almost 90% of the head offices of the banks, finan cial institutions and multinational companies operate in Karachi. The country’s largest stock exchange is Karachi-based, making it the financial and commercial center of the country. It also comprises about 40% of the total banking and insurance sector of the country. Karachi contributes 20% of GDP, adds 45% of the national value added, retains 40% of the total national employment in large scale manufacturing, holds 50% of bank deposits and contributes 25% of national revenues and 40% of provincial revenues. Karachi Mega Cities Preparation Project, page 3, 2005) The CDG (City District Government) of Karachi is divided into 18 zones or towns. These towns are governed by the town municipal administration. Each town administration is responsible for infrastructure and spatial planning, development facilitation, and municipal services (water, sanitation, solid waste, repairing roads, parks, street lights, and traffic engineering) in a town, except those functions which are retained within the CDG. Intra-city transport now falls under the Local Government. Karachi Mass Transit Cell, City District Government, 2006). Apart from in-migrants from Pakistan’s provinces, a large number of migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and other South Asian countries have settled in the city. With an average monthly household income of Rs. 15000, there is considerable variation in income distribution. Roughly 75 percent of the households fall in the category of poor and low income groups, and 25 percent constitute the middle and high income groups (Karachi Strategic Plan 2020, 2007). It is no longer possible to overlook the urban decay in Pakistan. Streets are littered with waste, drains are overflowing with sewage, low-lying communities are inundated after rainfall, traffic congestion is ubiquitous, and the violent crime in urban centers is on the rise. The State either has divested from, or is no longer able to offer, reliable mass transit, good quality and affordable primary education, and healthcare. This has given the opportunity to the private sector to take up ome of these roles (Vision 2030, 2006) 1. 2Transportation – Facts And Figures The population of Karachi City District relies almost entirely on the road network for urban transportation. There is currently no mass transit system per se, although many commute using the network of bus routes. There are nearly 13. 5 million mechanized trips made each day within the CDGK area, of which 52 percent are made by public and 48 percent by private transport. There are 1. million registered vehicles in Karachi (almost 50 percent of the national total) and private vehicles – mainly motorcycles and cars – now constitute 83 percent of total registered vehicles while buses and min-buses constitute only 1. 5 percent (Karachi Mega Cities Preparation Project, page 14, 2005). In 2002 the total registered vehicles and cars were growing at twice the growth rate of the population while the vehicle fleet is dominated by cars and motorcycles, which account for 92% of the vehicles as compared to 6% for para-transit vehicles and 2% for public transport vehicles. The buses/minibuses are the most important mode of public transport in Karachi and better transport management strategies, service, accessibility, and affordability can help reduce the use of private vehicles (Urban Transport and Sustainable Transport Strategies, 2007). The intra-city road network has a radial pattern, consisting of a series of arterials, a few circumferential roads with inconsistent links and a disproportionately large number of local and collector roads. In terms of connectivity, the network is deficient in secondary roads that provide feeder service to major thoroughfares. The weakness has basically arisen from the piece-meal development focused on residential schemes in the past (Karachi Strategic Plan 2020, 2007). The availability of public transport has not grown at the same rate as the population in Pakistani cities (Sohail et al. 2006). With growth rates for private vehicles at over 9 percent, there are now over 280 new vehicles added to the streets of Karachi each day (Karachi Mega Cities Preparation Project, page 14, 2005).